El movimiento estudiantil "Rhodes debe caer" (Rodhes Must Fall) : las universidades sudafricanas como campo de lucha.

"Rhodes must fall" : south african universities as a site of struggle.

La universidad en Sudáfrica se convirtió en campo clave de lucha en 2015. Profesores y líderes universitarios, así como el gobierno, se vieron tomados por sorpresa cuando los estudiantes se unieron a los «ciudadanos insurgentes», para exigir la descolonización inmediata de la universidad. Lo que se inició como el movimiento Rhodes Debe Caer (Rhodes Must Fakk) contra la estatua de Cecil John Rhodes en la Universidad de Ciudad del Cabo, rápidamente se extendió a demandas más amplias de justicia cognitiva; cambio de currículo; desmantelamiento de símbolos ofensivos coloniales o del apartheid; derecho a la educación gratuita, relevante y de calidad; libertad cultural; y cambio total de la idea misma de universidad, de su pedigrí occidental («la universidad en África») a la «universidad africana». Este artículo analiza porqué la universidad en Sudáfrica se ha convertido en campo de luchas, al tiempo que explica las actuales protestas estudiantiles. En un nivel, el artículo sitúa y teoriza el RMF en un contexto más amplio sobre la crisis de la civilización y la modernidad euro-norteamericano-céntricas, así como la historia de la protesta africana, que abarca tres fases de protestas anticoloniales de las décadas de 1950 y 1960; las protestas antiausteridad y los límites de la reforma de las décadas de 1980 y 1990; y los actuales «levantamientos africanos» (Branch & Mampilly, 2015). En otro nivel, el artículo pretende historizar y teorizar sobre el movimiento RMF en el contexto de la idea altamente disputada y en evolución de Sudáfrica mediada por el «paradigma de la diferencia» y las prácticas de la «imposibilidad de co-presencia» (Mudimbe, 1994; Santos, 2007, pp. 45-89). En términos generales, el artículo ofrece un marco teórico e histórico, así como una interpretación del terreno, del que puede extraerse un significado más profundo de los actuales movimientos estudiantiles.

1. Ashby, E. (1964). African Universities and Western Tradition: The Godkin Lectures at Harvard University. Londres: Oxford University Press.
2. Asmal, K. (2001). Foreword to Manifesto on Values, Education and Democracy. Pretoria: Departamento de Educación.
3. Barnes, T. (2007). Politics of the Mind and Body: Gender and Institutional Culture in African Universities. Feminist Africa, 8 (septiembre), 8-25.
4. Blyden, E.W. (1967). Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
5. Blyden, E.W. (1882). The Aims and Methods of a Liberal Education for Africans: Inaugural Address Delivered by Edward Wilmot Blyden, LL. D., President of Liberia College, January 5, 1818. Cambridge. Massachusets.
6. Branch, A. y Mampilly, Z. (2015). Africa Uprising: Popular Protest and Political Change. Ciudad del Cabo: HSRC Press.
7. Brown, J. (2015). South Africa’s Insurgent citizens: On Dissent and the Possibility of Politics. Johannesburg: Jacana.
8. Brown, J. (2010). ‘SASO’s Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968-1972.’ South Africa Historical Journal, (6294), 728-729.
9. Bundy, C. (2007). New Nation, New History? Constructing the Past in Post-Apartheid South Africa. En H. E. Stolten (eds.), History Making and Present Day Politics: The Meaning of Collective Memory in South Africa. Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute.
10. Cesaire, A. (1972 [1955]). Discourse on Colonialism: Translated by Joan Pinkham. New York: Monthly Review Press.
11. Chabal, P. (2012). The End of Conceit: Western Rationality after Postcolonialism. Londres: Zed Books.
12. Charlton, R. (1996, 1o. de febrero). ‘Wits on A Survival Course’. The Star.
13. Chatterjee, P. (2011). The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World. Nueva York: Columbia University Press.
14. Cooper, B. y Morrell, R. (eds.). (2014). Africa-Centred Knowledges: Crossing Fields and Worlds. Oxford: James Currey.
15. Davies, J. (1996). The State and the South Africa University System under Apartheid. Comparative Education, 32(3), 319-332.
16. Depelchin, J. (2005). Silences in African History: Between the Syndromes of Discovery and Abolition. Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota Publishers.
17. Du Bois, W.E. B. (1903). The Souls of Black Folk. Nueva York: Dover Publications, Inc.
18. Dubow, S. (2007). Thoughts on South Africa: Some Preliminary Ideas. En: H. E. Stolten (eds.), History Making and Present Day Politics: The Meaning of Collective Memory in South Africa. Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute.
19. Falola, T. (2001). Nationalism and African Intellectuals. Rochester: Rochester University Press.
20. Fanon, F. (1963). The Wretched of the Earth: Translated by C. Farrrington. Nueva York: Grove Press.
21. Fukuyama, F. (2013, 28 de junio). The Middle Class Revolution. Wall Street Journal.
22. Goga, S. (2016). The Radical Refusal of the Colonial Gaze: A Reading of Post-Apartheid Social Reality Through the Recent Student Protests. Short Papers Series on Race and Identity.
23. Gordon, L.R. (2000). Existentia Africana: Understanding Africana Existential Thought. Nueva York: Routledge.
24. Grosfoguel, R. (2013). The Structure of Knowledge in Westernized Universities: Epistemic Racism/Sexism and the Four Genocides/Epistemicides of the Long 16th Century. Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge, XI (1), 73-90.
25. Grosfoguel, R. (2011). Decolonizing Postcolonial Studies and Paradigms of Political Economy: Transmodernity, Decolonial Thinking, and Global Coloniality. Modernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of Luso-Hispanic World, 1 (1), 1-39.
26. Grosfoguel, R. (2007). The Epistemic Decolonial Turn: Beyond Political-Economy Paradigms. Cultural Studies, 21(2/3), 203- 236.
27. Habib, A. (2015). Accelerating Transformation for an Inclusive and Competitive Wits. Focus: The Journal of Helen Suzman Foundation, 76, 8-10.
28. Halisi, C. R. D. (1999). Black Political Thought in the Making of South African Democracy. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.
29. Hart, G. (2013). Rethinking the South African Crisis: Nationalism, Populism, Hegemony. Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
30. Harvey, D. (2012). Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution. Londres: Verso.
31. Hayford, J.E.C. (1911). Ethiopia Unbound: Studies in Race Emancipation. Londres: Frank Cass.
32. Heffernan, A. (2015). Black Consciousness’s Lost Leader: Abraham Tiro, the University of the North, and the Seeds of South Africa’s Student Movement in the 1970s. Journal of Southern African Studies, 41(1), 173-186.
33. Honwana, A. (2013). Youth and Revolution in Tunisia. Londres: Zed Books.
34. Johnston, A. (2014). South Africa: Inventing the Nation. Londres & Nueva York: Bloomsbury Academic.
35. July. R.W. (1987). An African Voice: The Role of the Humanities in African Independence. Durham: Duke University Press.
36. Juma, C. (2011, 28 de julio). The African Summer. Foreign Policy, Recuperado de http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/07/28/the_africa_summer
37. Kamola, I.A. (2011). Pursuing Excellence in a World-Class African University: The Mamdani Affair and the politics of Global Higher Education. Journal of Higher Education in Africa, 9(1/2), 121-142.
38. Lushaba, L.S. (2016). Is Decoloniality an Answer to Transformation and Africanization? Artículo inédito para presentación en la semana de la Investigación y la Innovación, Universidad de South Africa, marzo, 2016.
39. Luthuli, A. (2006). Let My People Go: The Autobiography of Albert Luthuli. Houghton: Mafube Publishing (Pty) Limited.
40. Macqueen, I. (2013). Students, Apartheid and the Ecumenical Movement in South Africa, 1960-1975. Journal of Southern African Studies, 39(2): 447-463.
41. Magubane, B.M. (1979). The Political Economy of Race and Class in South Africa. Nueva York y Londres: Monthly Review Press.
42. Magubane, B. (1977). The Poverty of Liberal Analysis: A Polemic on Southern Africa. Review, 1(2), 147-166.
43. Makgoba, M.W. (1997). Mokoko: The Makgoba Affair: A Reflection on Transformation. Florida: Vivlia Publishers.
44. Maldonado-Torres, N. (2012). Decoloniality at Large: Towards-Americas and Global Transmodern Paradigm (Introduction to Special Issue of ‘Thinking Through the Decolonial Turn’). Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of Luso-Hispanic World, 1(3), 2-25.
45. Maldonado-Torres, N. (2011). Thinking Through the Decolonial Turn: Post-Continental Interventions in Theory, Philosophy, and Critique —An Introduction. Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World, 1(2), 1-39.
46. Mamdani, M. (2015). Beyond Nuremberg: The Historical Significance of the Post-Apartheid Transition in South Africa. Politics and Society, 43(1), 61-88.
47. Mamdani, M. (2013). Define and Rule: Native as Political Identity. Johannesburg: Wits University Press.
48. Mamdani, M. (1998). Is African Studies To Be Turned Into A New Home for Bantu Education at UCT? Centre for African Studies, Ciudad del Cabo.
49. Mamdani, M. (1996). Citizens and Subjects: The Legacy of Late Colonialism in Africa. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
50. Mamdani, M. (ed.). (1995). Teaching Africa at the Post-Apartheid University of Cape Town: A Critical View of the ‘Introduction to Africa’ Course in the Social Science and Humanities Faculty Foundation Semester. Rondebosch: Universidad de Ciudad del Cabo.
51. Mamdani, M. (1995). A Reflection on Higher Education in Equatorial Africa: Some Lessons for South Africa. South African Journal of Higher Education, 9.
52. Mamdani, M. (1992, 10 de octubre). Africa: Democratic Theory and Democratic Struggles. Economic and Political Weekly, 27(41), 2228-2235.
53. Maseko, R. (2016). Being a Black Mine Worker in South Africa: The Case of Anglo Platinum Mine. Tesis de doctorado inédita, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa.
54. Mignolo, W.D. (2000). Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledge, and Border Thinking. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
55. Mignolo, W.D. (1995). The Dark Side of Renaissance: Literacy, Territory, and Colonization. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
56. Mudimbe, V.Y. (1994). The Idea of Africa. Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.
57. Mudimbe, V.Y. (1988). The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge. Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.
58. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J. (2016, 1o. de marzo). Is Decoloniality the Answer to the Problems of Transformation and Africanization? Conferencia presentada en la semana de la investigación y la innovación, Senate Hall, University of South Africa.
59. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J. (2015). Decoloniality in Africa: A Continuing Search for a New World Order. Australasian Review of African Studies, 36(2), 22-50.
60. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J. (2013). Coloniality of Power in Postcolonial Africa: Myths of Decolonization. Dakar: Codesria Book Series.
61. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J. (2013). Empire, Global Coloniality and African Subjectivity. Nueva York y Oxford: Berghahn Books.
62. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J. (2008). Black Republicanism, Nativism and Populist Politics in South Africa. Transformation, 68, 53-86.
63. Neocosmos, M. (2008). From ‘Foreign Natives’ to ‘Native Foreigners’: Explaining Xenophobia in Post-Apartheid South Africa: Citizenship and Nationalism, Identity and Politics. Dakar: Codesria Books.
64. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. (1986). Decolonizing the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. Nairobi: Heinemann Educational Publishing Ltd.
65. Nkondo, M.G. (Ed.). (1976). Turfloop Testimony: The Dilemma of a Black University in South Africa. Johannesburg: Ravan Press.
66. Nkrumah, K. (1965). Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism. Londres: Panaf.
67. Ntsebeza, L. (s.d.). The Mafeje and UCT Saga: Unfinished Business. Unpublished Paper, University of Cape Town.
68. Nyamnjoh, F. (2012). Potted Plants in Greenhouses: A Critical Reflection on the Resilience of Colonial Education in Africa. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 47(2), 129-154.
69. Onimode, B. (1992). A Future for Africa: Beyond the Politics of Adjustment. Londres: Earthscan.
70. Owomonyela, O. (1996). The African Difference: Discourses on Africanity and the Relativity of Cultures. Johannesburg: Wits University Press.
71. Pratt, R.C. (1965). African Universities and Western Tradition —Some East African Reflections. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 3(3), 421-428.
72. Rathbone. R. (1977). Student Politics. The Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 15(2), 105-119.
73. Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Londres: Bogle-L’Ouverture Publications.
74. Santos, B. de S. (2007). Beyond Abyssal Thinking: From Global Lines to Ecologies of Knowledge. Review, XXX (1), 45-89.
75. Schuster, L. (2004). A Burning Hunger: One Family’s Struggle Against Apartheid. Athens: Ohio University Press.
76. Statman, J.M. y Ansell, A.E. (2000). The Rise and Fall of the Makgoba Affair: A Case Study of Symbolic Politics. Politikon, 27(2), 267-289.
77. Tabata, I.B. (1959). Education for Barbarism: Bantu (Apartheid) Education in South Africa. Londres: Prometheus.
78. Tabensky, P. y Mathews, S. (eds.). (2015). Being at Home: Race, Institutional Culture and Transformation at South African Higher Education Institutions. Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
79. Wallerstein, I. (1991). Introduction: Why Unthink? En: Immanuel Wallerstein (ed.), Unthinking Social Science: The Limits of Nineteenth Century Paradigms (pp. 1-30). Cambridge: Polity Press.
80. Webster, E. (1998). ‘Wits’ Going On? Revisiting the Makgoba Affair. Southern Africa Report, 13(2), 1-5.
81. West, C. (1987). Race and Social Theory: Towards a Genealogical Materialist Analysis. En Mike Davis, Manning Marable, Fred Pfeil and Michael Sprinker (eds.), The Year Left: Volume 2: Towards a Rainbow Socialism: Essays on Race, Ethnicity, Class, and Gender. Londres: Verso.
82. Žižek, S. (2011). Living in the End Times. Londres: Verso.